How to Download Games from Steam Faster

How you can obtain video games from Steam sooner is a vital talent for any gamer. This information delves into a variety of methods to turbocharge your Steam downloads, guaranteeing you’ll be able to soar into the motion sooner than ever earlier than. We’ll discover every thing from optimizing your community connection to fine-tuning your Steam shopper settings, and even some {hardware} upgrades that may dramatically impression your obtain pace.

Prepare to overcome these prolonged obtain occasions!

From understanding the intricacies of your web connection to mastering Steam’s obtain settings, this complete information empowers you with the data to obtain video games sooner. We’ll present actionable ideas and tips, permitting you to keep away from widespread pitfalls and maximize your obtain pace. Let’s unlock the secrets and techniques to swift Steam downloads and expertise the joys of gaming with out delays.

Table of Contents

Optimizing Community Connections

Gaming calls for a sturdy web connection. A quick and dependable connection interprets on to smoother gameplay, faster downloads, and a extra pleasurable expertise. Understanding tips on how to optimize your community is essential to unlocking peak efficiency.Community efficiency is tremendously influenced by a wide range of elements, together with the kind of web connection, potential bottlenecks, and even delicate interference. By addressing these points, you’ll be able to considerably enhance your gaming expertise.

Bettering Web Velocity for Gaming

Numerous strategies can increase your web pace. Using these methods can yield noticeable enhancements in obtain occasions.

Optimize Wi-Fi Settings: Positioning your router strategically, away from partitions and obstructions, and utilizing the 5 GHz band (when out there) can considerably enhance Wi-Fi efficiency. Selecting a channel much less congested with different Wi-Fi networks also can improve sign power and reduce interference.
Wired Connections: If attainable, a wired connection (Ethernet) is mostly superior to Wi-Fi. It provides a extra steady and dependable reference to much less latency, making it ultimate for gaming.
Replace Router Firmware: Retaining your router’s firmware updated ensures you are benefiting from the most recent efficiency enhancements and safety patches, doubtlessly boosting speeds.
Restrict Background Actions: Heavy downloads, video streaming, and different resource-intensive duties can considerably impression your web pace. Attempt to reduce these actions whereas downloading video games.

Figuring out and Troubleshooting Community Bottlenecks

Figuring out community bottlenecks is essential for pinpointing the supply of gradual obtain speeds. By understanding the varied factors of potential slowdown, you’ll be able to take focused steps to enhance your community efficiency.

Community Velocity Check: Frequently take a look at your web pace to find out if the difficulty lies along with your web supplier or your community setup. Use dependable on-line pace testing instruments to gauge obtain and add speeds.
Test for {Hardware} Points: Make sure that all community {hardware} parts (router, modem, community adapters) are functioning appropriately. Defective {hardware} can considerably impression efficiency.
Firewall Settings: Confirm that your firewall settings aren’t blocking communication required for the sport obtain. Adjusting these settings could be essential to make sure optimum obtain speeds.

Influence of Web Connection Sorts

Totally different web connection sorts supply various obtain speeds. Understanding these variations helps you select probably the most applicable connection to your gaming wants.

DSL: DSL connections, whereas extensively out there, sometimes supply slower obtain speeds in comparison with cable or fiber. Their efficiency might be affected by distance from the phone alternate.
Cable: Cable web normally offers sooner obtain speeds than DSL, providing a extra appropriate expertise for gaming, particularly for customers in areas with enough cable infrastructure.
Fiber: Fiber optic web delivers considerably sooner obtain speeds and decrease latency, making it a superb alternative for demanding gaming actions. Fiber’s reliability and pace are unmatched by different connection sorts.

Minimizing Community Interference

Minimizing community interference is important for constant obtain speeds. Understanding potential sources of interference lets you mitigate their impression.

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Digital units like microwaves, cordless telephones, and different home equipment can create EMI, doubtlessly impacting your community sign. Putting these units away out of your router may also help.
Bodily Obstructions: Obstacles like partitions, steel objects, and thick furnishings can impede your Wi-Fi sign, resulting in slower obtain speeds. Positioning your router strategically and guaranteeing clear strains of sight can mitigate this subject.

Function of DNS Settings in Obtain Speeds

DNS settings can considerably impression obtain speeds. By understanding how DNS works, you’ll be able to fine-tune your settings for optimum efficiency.

DNS Configuration: Utilizing a sooner and extra dependable DNS server can enhance obtain speeds by decreasing latency in the course of the preliminary decision of domains to IP addresses.

Evaluating Web Suppliers

This desk provides a basic comparability of typical obtain speeds provided by completely different web suppliers. Be aware that these are averages and precise speeds might differ.

Supplier	Typical Obtain Velocity (Mbps)
Supplier A	150
Supplier B	250
Supplier C	500

Steam Consumer Configuration

Unlocking the speediest Steam downloads hinges on understanding and optimizing your Steam shopper settings. Mastering these configurations empowers you to obtain video games at lightning pace, saving you worthwhile time and frustration. Correct configuration is not nearly pace; it is about effectivity and a smoother gaming expertise.Steam’s obtain settings supply granular management over your obtain course of. From adjusting obtain priorities to troubleshooting potential hiccups, this part offers a complete information to maximizing your Steam obtain expertise.

Let’s delve into the specifics.

Obtain Settings throughout the Steam Consumer

Steam’s obtain settings present a versatile framework for tailoring your downloads to your wants. These settings can help you fine-tune your obtain expertise, optimizing it for pace and stability. This cautious management ensures a extra environment friendly and satisfying gaming expertise.

Basic Obtain Choices: Steam provides fundamental obtain settings that have an effect on the general obtain course of. These embrace choices for setting obtain pace limits and adjusting obtain places. These settings, if configured appropriately, can tremendously impression your obtain speeds.
Obtain Precedence: Steam lets you set obtain priorities for various video games. Greater priorities be certain that these downloads obtain extra bandwidth, resulting in sooner completion occasions. Prioritization is essential for video games you are desirous to play instantly.

Adjusting Obtain Priorities within the Steam Consumer

Prioritizing downloads is essential for guaranteeing well timed recreation availability. This characteristic ensures that downloads important to your gaming schedule obtain preferential remedy. Prioritizing downloads permits you to management which downloads obtain extra bandwidth.

Guide Precedence Adjustment: You possibly can manually modify obtain priorities throughout the Steam shopper. This enables for personalized obtain scheduling, permitting you to strategically prioritize particular downloads.
Computerized Precedence Adjustment: Steam’s computerized prioritization characteristic analyzes your community circumstances and adjusts obtain priorities accordingly. This could show helpful in conditions with fluctuating community speeds.

Troubleshooting Steam Obtain Points

Obtain issues are sometimes a results of community instability or configuration errors. By addressing these points, you’ll be able to be certain that your Steam downloads proceed easily. These troubleshooting steps present sensible options for widespread obtain issues.

Confirm Web Connection: Guarantee a steady web connection. Test your router and modem for any potential issues. It is a essential preliminary step to establish any network-related obstacles.
Test for Software program Conflicts: Often, different software program can intrude with Steam downloads. Contemplate briefly disabling different packages to isolate the trigger.
Restart Steam Consumer: A easy restart of the Steam shopper can typically resolve minor glitches and optimize the obtain course of.

Influence of Steam Server Places on Obtain Velocity

Steam’s servers play a major position in obtain speeds. The proximity of a server to your location typically dictates the obtain price. Selecting a server nearer to your geographical location normally yields higher outcomes.

Server Choice: Steam typically permits customers to pick out the server location for downloads. This selection permits you to select the closest server, thereby enhancing obtain speeds.
Geographic Location: Servers located geographically nearer to your location will naturally end in sooner obtain speeds.

Steam Obtain Consumer vs. Different Obtain Managers

Steam’s built-in obtain shopper is mostly enough for many customers. Nonetheless, devoted obtain managers might supply specialised options for extra demanding obtain situations. Evaluating each choices can present a greater understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of every strategy.

Ease of Use: Steam’s built-in shopper is simple to make use of, with intuitive controls. This simplicity is a key benefit for informal customers.
Integration: Steam’s shopper integrates seamlessly with the platform, offering a unified expertise for managing video games and downloads.
Extra Options: Devoted obtain managers typically embrace options reminiscent of scheduling, resuming downloads, and superior pace optimization. These options might show helpful for customers with extra intricate obtain wants.

Desk: Influence of Obtain Settings on Obtain Speeds

Obtain Setting	Description	Influence on Obtain Velocity
Obtain Precedence	Greater precedence = extra bandwidth	Sooner obtain pace
Obtain Velocity Restrict	Limiting obtain pace	Slower however extra steady obtain
Server Location	Proximity to server	Doubtlessly sooner obtain pace

{Hardware} Issues

Unleashing the total potential of your Steam downloads hinges not simply on community optimization, but additionally on the internal workings of your laptop. A speedy arduous drive, ample RAM, and a strong processor all play a vital position in how shortly these recreation information switch. Let’s dive into the {hardware} facet of issues and see how we will fine-tune your obtain expertise.

Exhausting Drive Sort and Obtain Speeds

Exhausting drive kind considerably impacts obtain speeds. Conventional arduous disk drives (HDDs) depend on spinning platters and skim/write heads, making them slower than solid-state drives (SSDs). This distinction in expertise interprets instantly into obtain speeds. SSDs make the most of flash reminiscence, permitting for a lot sooner knowledge entry and switch charges. The outcome?

Considerably faster downloads.

Ample RAM for Quick Downloads

RAM, or Random Entry Reminiscence, is akin to a pc’s short-term reminiscence. Whereas circuitously concerned in thephysical* act of downloading, enough RAM is essential for dealing with the quite a few processes concerned in a easy obtain. A obtain can contain a number of background duties, reminiscent of file buffering and error checking. In case your RAM is inadequate, these processes can turn out to be sluggish, slowing down your total obtain pace.

Comparability of SSD Sorts and Obtain Velocity, How you can obtain video games from steam sooner

Totally different SSD sorts supply various efficiency ranges. Usually, newer, sooner SSD applied sciences, like NVMe drives, supply the best pace benefits. These drives use a unique interface and structure than older SATA SSDs, permitting for a lot sooner knowledge switch speeds. The NVMe interface permits for terribly excessive throughput, which may translate into considerably sooner obtain speeds.

Suggestions for Upgrading {Hardware}

Upgrading your laptop’s {hardware} can dramatically enhance obtain speeds. Contemplate these suggestions:

Stable State Drive (SSD): Changing an HDD with an SSD is a major improve that may noticeably enhance obtain speeds.
Ample RAM: Guarantee you might have sufficient RAM to deal with the obtain course of. This may increasingly differ primarily based on the sport measurement and your laptop’s total workload.
Excessive-speed Community Card: A quick community card can additional improve your obtain speeds by permitting your laptop to speak with the server at most capability.
Newer Processor: A more moderen processor, particularly one with improved multi-threading capabilities, can help with the varied background duties associated to downloads.

The important thing right here is to decide on upgrades that tackle the precise bottlenecks in your system.

Influence of CPU Velocity on Obtain Speeds

Central Processing Unit (CPU) pace, whereas not the first driver of obtain pace, performs a task in how effectively your laptop handles the duties concerned within the obtain course of. A sooner CPU may also help with duties like decompression, that are important to a easy obtain.

{Hardware} Configurations and Obtain Velocity Potential

The next desk illustrates how completely different {hardware} configurations can have an effect on obtain speeds. This isn’t an exhaustive checklist, however moderately a place to begin to think about.

{Hardware} Configuration	Estimated Obtain Velocity (theoretical)	Notes
HDD with 8GB RAM, older CPU	Sluggish	Important bottleneck in obtain pace.
SSD with 16GB RAM, mid-range CPU	Reasonable	Improved obtain pace however should be constrained by CPU.
NVMe SSD with 32GB RAM, high-end CPU	Quick	Excessive-end configuration, leading to extraordinarily quick downloads.

This desk ought to assist you to visualize the potential positive aspects in pace from upgrading your {hardware}. Keep in mind that real-world efficiency can differ primarily based on elements reminiscent of community circumstances and recreation file measurement.

Various Obtain Strategies

Unleashing the pace demons inside your Steam downloads typically requires extra than simply tweaking settings. Generally, a change of ways is required. This part dives into various obtain strategies, exploring methods past the usual Steam shopper to supercharge your recreation acquisition.

Third-Occasion Obtain Managers

Third-party obtain managers supply a robust arsenal for managing downloads. They supply options like scheduling, resuming interrupted downloads, and prioritizing downloads, making them invaluable for giant video games. These instruments can considerably enhance obtain effectivity, particularly when coping with a number of information or intermittent web connections.

Key Options: Many obtain managers supply options like scheduling, pace optimization, and superior obtain administration, making the method extra streamlined and environment friendly. These instruments can typically monitor the obtain pace and mechanically modify the obtain settings to take care of optimum efficiency, additional boosting the obtain pace.
Instance: Obtain managers like JDownloader and IDM are famend for his or her complete options and are utilized by many avid gamers. They provide functionalities reminiscent of pausing and resuming downloads, prioritizing downloads primarily based on file measurement, and creating obtain queues. This potential to arrange downloads is especially helpful for managing a number of recreation downloads concurrently. As an illustration, downloading a number of elements of a giant recreation might be successfully managed by these packages.
Advantages: They typically present a extra streamlined interface for managing a number of downloads, particularly for giant information. Scheduling downloads, resuming downloads that had been interrupted, and prioritization of downloads primarily based on file measurement or significance are key advantages.

VPN Influence on Obtain Speeds

A Digital Non-public Community (VPN) can have an effect on obtain speeds in numerous methods. Whereas a VPN can generally enhance obtain speeds by routing your connection via a server nearer to the content material supply, it may possibly additionally introduce latency and bandwidth limitations. The precise impression is determined by a number of elements, together with the VPN supplier, the server location, and your web connection.

Latency Issues: The space between your location and the VPN server, in addition to the server’s total capability, will affect obtain speeds. A VPN server situated geographically nearer to the sport servers can doubtlessly cut back latency, however a congested server would possibly introduce important delays.
Bandwidth Limitations: VPNs can generally impose bandwidth limitations in your connection. This might doubtlessly cut back the obtain pace if the VPN server does not have sufficient bandwidth to deal with the obtain demand.
Testing Suggestions: Experimenting with completely different VPN servers and obtain speeds is advisable to find out the optimum setup to your wants. That is particularly useful when downloading giant information from a selected area or server. Check completely different server places and consider the impression on obtain speeds.

Cloud Storage for Downloads

Cloud storage companies supply a viable technique for downloading and managing giant information. They supply ample house for momentary storage of recreation information whereas downloading them. The method typically includes downloading the information to your cloud storage, then transferring them to your laptop. This technique permits for administration and group of enormous information, decreasing the stress in your laptop’s cupboard space in the course of the obtain course of.

Area Issues: Cloud storage options can present a major benefit for managing giant recreation information in the course of the obtain section. They can help you briefly retailer these information with out overwhelming your native arduous drive.
Transferring Information: As soon as the obtain is full within the cloud, you’ll be able to simply switch the information to your native machine, streamlining the method of putting in the sport. This course of typically includes downloading information from the cloud storage to your native laptop.
Advantages: It alleviates the pressure in your laptop’s storage in the course of the obtain course of. It additionally permits for extra environment friendly group and administration of enormous information.

Downloading in Components

Downloading giant information in elements, or utilizing a multi-part obtain technique, can considerably enhance the general obtain time, notably for video games with a number of parts. This system typically includes downloading elements of a recreation’s information concurrently, optimizing obtain pace.

Parallel Downloads: Multi-part downloads leverage the web connection by downloading completely different elements of the sport concurrently, doubtlessly decreasing the general obtain time. Instruments like obtain managers steadily make use of this technique to spice up obtain effectivity.
Resumption Capabilities: If the obtain is interrupted, the multi-part obtain technique permits for resuming the obtain from the purpose of interruption, saving time and avoiding the necessity to begin from scratch.
Improved Effectivity: By downloading a number of elements concurrently, the general obtain time might be dramatically diminished, particularly for giant recreation information which have many particular person parts.

Comparability of Obtain Managers

Numerous obtain managers can be found, every with its personal set of options and benefits. Components to think about embrace consumer interface, obtain scheduling, and file administration instruments.

Obtain Supervisor	Professionals	Cons
JDownloader	Open-source, in depth options, versatile	Steeper studying curve, much less intuitive for novices
IDM	Sturdy options, dependable, user-friendly	Business software program, potential for greater value
Obtain Accelerator Plus	Highly effective obtain acceleration, user-friendly	Restricted free options, would possibly require a license

Content material Optimization: How To Obtain Video games From Steam Sooner

Dashing up Steam recreation downloads is not nearly a sooner web connection; it is about optimizing each side of the method. Intelligent methods for managing recreation information and understanding how Steam handles updates can dramatically enhance your obtain expertise. This part delves into strategies for maximizing obtain speeds, guaranteeing easy updates, and troubleshooting potential points.Recreation file measurement and construction, replace methods, and file compression strategies all play an important position in obtain occasions.

Optimizing these components permits for a extra environment friendly and sooner obtain course of.

Optimizing Recreation File Sizes

Understanding how recreation file sizes impression obtain occasions is essential. Massive information clearly take longer to obtain, however the construction of the file itself additionally influences the method. Strategies for decreasing file sizes with out sacrificing high quality can considerably increase obtain speeds.

Using file compression strategies, reminiscent of ZIP or RAR, can cut back file measurement. This could considerably pace up downloads, particularly for bigger video games. Think about using specialised compression instruments for optimum outcomes. For instance, if a recreation is 15GB, compressing it to 10GB may drastically lower obtain time.
Search for variations of video games with pre-built content material packs or DLCs already built-in. These optimized information might be smaller than the sum of the unique information and the DLC, decreasing the obtain measurement considerably.
Select the right obtain high quality. If the obtain permits, choosing lower-resolution textures or fashions, the place attainable, can cut back the general file measurement.

Effectively Managing Recreation Updates

Managing recreation updates successfully is essential to minimizing obtain time and guaranteeing a seamless gaming expertise. Steam’s replace system might be optimized to cut back downtime and maximize effectivity.

Schedule downloads for off-peak hours. Downloading throughout low-traffic durations in your web service will sometimes result in sooner speeds.
Use a steady and dependable web connection for downloads. An unstable connection can result in obtain interruptions and wasted time.
Allow Steam’s background updates. These updates occur within the background, minimizing interruptions to your workflow or gaming classes.

Influence of Recreation File Compression

Recreation file compression instantly impacts obtain pace. Totally different compression strategies supply various levels of compression and impression on obtain occasions.

Greater compression ratios typically result in smaller file sizes, leading to sooner downloads. Nonetheless, some compression strategies would possibly barely impression the standard of the sport information.
The most typical strategies are ZIP and RAR, that are efficient for general-purpose file compression. Extra specialised compression algorithms might be employed for bigger information or particular kinds of knowledge.
Superior compression strategies can additional cut back file measurement however might barely improve the time wanted to decompress the information in your system.

Resolving Corrupted Recreation Information

Corrupted recreation information can result in irritating obtain errors and unplayable video games. Understanding tips on how to establish and resolve these points can prevent important time.

Steam’s built-in instruments can typically establish and restore corrupted information. At all times examine Steam’s assist documentation for particular directions.
Re-downloading a corrupted file is a elementary troubleshooting step. This ensures you might have a clear and practical recreation file.
Checking for conflicting packages operating within the background in the course of the obtain course of might be useful.

Recreation File Dimension and Construction’s Impact on Obtain Instances

Recreation file measurement and construction instantly affect obtain occasions. Understanding this relationship permits for simpler methods.

Bigger information take longer to obtain. The dimensions of the file is a elementary issue within the obtain time.
The construction of the file can have an effect on obtain pace. Sophisticated file buildings may cause points with the obtain course of, resulting in delays.
File fragmentation throughout obtain also can trigger slowdowns. Methods to attenuate fragmentation can optimize the obtain course of.

Evaluating Recreation Obtain Methods

A desk evaluating completely different methods for recreation downloads can spotlight the advantages and disadvantages of every strategy.

Technique	Professionals	Cons
Sequential Obtain	Easy to implement	Sluggish for giant information
Parallel Obtain	Sooner for giant information	Requires extra bandwidth
Multi-threaded Obtain	Sooner than parallel obtain	Requires extra processing energy

Troubleshooting Particular Points

Navigating the digital realm of recreation downloads can generally really feel like navigating a maze. Sudden hiccups, irritating freezes, and gradual speeds are all a part of the expertise. This part will illuminate widespread Steam obtain issues, equip you with options, and empower you to troubleshoot successfully. From understanding the foundation causes of intermittent points to resolving obtain freezes, you will achieve the instruments to overcome these digital roadblocks.

Frequent Obtain Issues on Steam

Steam, whereas typically dependable, can encounter hiccups. These can stem from numerous elements, starting from community instability to software program glitches. Understanding these widespread issues is step one in direction of a smoother obtain expertise.

Community Instability: Intermittent community connectivity is a frequent perpetrator. Fluctuations in web pace, packet loss, or momentary community outages may cause obtain interruptions and slowdowns.
Steam Consumer Points: Generally, the Steam shopper itself can expertise glitches. This would possibly manifest as obtain errors, freezes, or lack of ability to connect with servers. Common updates and upkeep are essential to mitigate such issues.
File Corruption: Often, downloaded information can turn out to be corrupted. This corruption would possibly stem from community points, or from issues in your laptop’s finish. This could result in obtain failures or the shortcoming to launch the sport.
Inadequate Disk Area: Making certain ample house in your arduous drive is essential for easy downloads. Working out of house can set off errors, particularly when downloading giant video games.
Momentary Server Overloads: Throughout peak hours, Steam servers would possibly expertise momentary overloads. This could result in slowdowns or failures in downloads, notably for fashionable titles.

Options to Frequent Steam Obtain Errors

A scientific strategy is important to fixing obtain points. This part presents options for widespread errors, guiding you in direction of a profitable obtain.

Test your web connection: Guarantee a steady and quick web connection. Attempt restarting your modem and router, and examine for any community points. If attainable, use a unique community to isolate the issue.
Restart the Steam Consumer: A easy restart of the Steam shopper can resolve many momentary glitches. Closing and reopening the shopper can refresh its connection to servers and assets.
Confirm Recreation Integrity: This selection in Steam helps establish and repair corrupted recreation information. Use this software to make sure that all recreation information are full and appropriately downloaded.
Unlock Disk Area: Guarantee enough free house in your arduous drive. Deleting pointless information and functions can create the required house for downloading.
Contact Steam Assist: If all else fails, attain out to Steam’s assist crew. They’ll present extra specialised help to troubleshoot persistent points.

Troubleshooting Sluggish Downloads

Sluggish downloads are irritating, however understanding the causes can result in options. This part offers perception into widespread culprits.

Community Congestion: Throughout peak hours or when many customers are downloading concurrently, community congestion can severely decelerate downloads. Contemplate downloading throughout off-peak hours for higher efficiency.
Obtain Velocity Limits: Some web suppliers or community configurations might impose obtain pace limits. Examine these limits to grasp if they’re hindering your downloads.
File Dimension and Connection High quality: The dimensions of the sport and the standard of your web connection instantly impression obtain pace. Bigger information and fewer steady connections will inevitably end in slower downloads.

Causes of Intermittent Obtain Points

Intermittent points might be notably perplexing. Understanding their causes permits for simpler options.

Energy Outages or Fluctuations: Sudden energy interruptions can result in file corruption and obtain interruptions. Think about using a UPS (Uninterruptible Energy Provide) to your laptop to mitigate this threat.
Background Processes: Quite a few background processes operating in your laptop can devour bandwidth, impacting obtain pace. Shut pointless functions to enhance obtain efficiency.
Firewall or Antivirus Points: Firewall or antivirus software program can generally block Steam downloads. Make sure that Steam is allowed via your firewall settings and that the firewall or antivirus software program isn’t interfering with downloads.

Obtain Freezes

Obtain freezes might be fairly disruptive. Understanding the causes will assist you to discover options.

Inadequate RAM: In case your laptop’s RAM is inadequate, downloads might freeze. Contemplate growing your RAM to enhance efficiency.
Disk Errors: Errors in your arduous drive may cause obtain freezes. Use disk checking instruments to establish and repair potential issues.
Steam Consumer Glitches: Not often, Steam itself may cause obtain freezes. Restarting the shopper would possibly resolve these points.

Frequent Steam Obtain Errors and Options

A structured strategy to error decision is important. This desk summarizes widespread Steam obtain errors and their options.

Error	Resolution
Obtain Failed	Confirm recreation information, restart Steam, examine web connection
Connection Timed Out	Restart Steam, examine web connection, attempt completely different community
Server Error	Await server to recuperate, attempt once more later, restart Steam
File Corruption	Confirm recreation information, obtain once more, contact Steam assist
Inadequate Disk Area	Unlock disk house, delete pointless information/functions